Genghis Khan died in 1227 fighting in China. Upon his successor’s death in 1259, squabbles over succession led to the Mongol Empire being split into four khanates, each ruled by a son or grandson. These included the Yuan Dynasty in China, the European Golden Horde, Persia’s Ilkhanate, and Central Asia’s Chagatai Khanate. Bitter feuds broke out in the Khanate, such as when Kublai Khan suppressed his opponents to consolidate his rule.
Despite Genghis Khan’s death, Mongol armies kept on the march. They sacked Budapest in Europe in 1241 and Damascus in 1260. Kublai Khan conquered China, establishing the Yuan Dynasty. His first Attempt at invasion in Japan failed in 1274.
Who Were the Mongols’ Opponents?
Without a doubt, they were preeminent horseback fighters, but the Mongols suffered several significant defeats. Their territorial expansion led to conflicts with equally formidable warriors, such as the Mamluk and Japanese samurai. The first big check came with the 1260 Battle of Ain Jalut. In this clash, the Mamluks halted the Mongols’ western advances.
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Fierce Japanese resistance thwarted Mongol invasion attempts in 1274 and 1281. Demands for tribute plus rumors of wealth caught Kublai Khan’s attention. Timely typhoons wrecked the Mongol fleet both times, ending their invasion attempts.
As warriors, only a few cultures could match the Mongols. Utilizing feints, superior mobility, and psychological impact, the Mongols won for years. But their opponents adapted. They fought the Mongols in the mountains, forced the horse lords to besiege cities, or allied together using their combined numbers to win, albeit at great cost. Also, the Mongols’ innate toughness faded as they assimilated.
What Economic Problems Did the Mongols Face?
The Mongols founded an empire that stabilized trade, especially along the Silk Road. Under the khans, items such as public works were improved, a postal system was established, and even a uniform currency was introduced. Still, it remained an empire with shaky economic legs. The Mongols obtained their wealth through conquest. As that pace slowed, this income source dried up.
The Mongol Empire established “Pax Mongolica,” which expanded a peaceful East-West trade and exchange for decades. To fund their empire, the Mongols employed their traditional tribute-based system in conquered areas. These territories were expected to provide wealth and supplies. Corrupt officials, though exploiting them, used heavy taxes to extract maximum wealth from these reluctant subjects. Resentment festered slowly until it erupted in rebellion. The Mongols ruthlessly quashed any revolts, causing widespread bloodshed. The greatest economic challenge the Mongols faced was the Black Death.
The Plague struck around 1331, spreading from Central Asia. Trade networks helped the spread, killing millions. The Silk Road, in particular, became the highway for the plague. The Black Death seriously emptied whole parts of countries, permanently altering the population and fracturing social norms.
How Did the Empire’s Diverse Cultures Hasten Its Downfall?
Despite the Mongols’ public works, such as aqueducts, canals, and improvements to trade, the nomads still came as conquerors. The Mongols launched violent, brutal, and bloody forays into foreign lands and didn’t hesitate to put entire cities to the sword. In 1240, the Mongols besieged Kiev for a year. They captured the city of 50,000 and massacred all but 2,000. This fear worked for the Mongols, causing cities to surrender to avoid slaughter. Ruling so many diverse places led to friction between the cultures. Due to the huge distances, the Mongols relied on local nobles to rule in their stead.
The Mongols experienced frequent rebellions, especially in China and Persia. In Persia, the destruction caused by the Mongol invasions led to a significant decline in population and agricultural production. Also, being nomads, the Mongols cared little for agriculture, creating more food shortages.
When Did the Fall Happen?
Genghis Khan’s empire didn’t collapse at once, unlike Rome in 476. His empire’s decline occurred gradually, especially upon splitting into four khanates. Later, Mongol armies became shadows of the Mongols’ iron-tough armies, stagnating or failing to improve their military tactics.
The Ilkhanate fell first in 1335, succumbing to natural disasters, internal clashes, and Persian attacks. Only remnant states remained. The future Ming Dynasty overthrew the Yuan Dynasty in 1368, retaking the country as the Mongols fled into the steppes. In the next century, Russia’s Golden Horde lost control but still existed in 1480, defeated by the Rus (Russians).
The Chagatai Khanate fragmented in the 17th century due to local rivalries. The Mongols accomplished what no previous civilization did- spanning the known world. Unfortunately, they were unable to keep it for more than a few generations.
