Throughout history, warfare has been a catalyst for technological innovation. The ancient world’s arsenal was simple yet effective, comprising daggers, short swords, spears, and bows for close combat, and powerful siege engines like catapults, rams, and siege towers for breaching fortifications. In addition to these commonly used weapons, the ancient engineers would make ingenious and often unusual weapon designs that would not look out of place in the modern arsenal of war. These weapons were often created by some of history’s great geniuses and played a crucial role in turning the tide of battle. They varied in shape and size, from colossal warships to lethal flamethrowers or terrifying dragon-head rockets. While some of these ingenious weapons are lost to time or have become the stuff of legend, others have left a lasting legacy, showcasing the ancients’ remarkable ingenuity and creativity in the art of war.
1. Greek Fire
The so-called Greek fire, the Byzantine Empire’s legendary incendiary weapon, was developed in the 7th century and used with devastating effect in naval warfare. Often compared to modern napalm, Greek fire was reputedly invented by Callinicus, a Greek-speaking Jewish refugee from Syria, and first deployed during the Arab siege of Constantinople around 672 CE. This “liquid fire” was projected onto enemy ships using siphons — an early version of flamethrowers — igniting upon contact and proving nearly impossible to extinguish. Extremely difficult to extinguish, the weapon had a unique advantage — it could burn on water. In fact, it would ignite more intensely upon contact with water and stick to any surface it touched, making it an invaluable weapon for the Byzantine navy.
The exact composition of this substance remains a mystery to this day. Some speculate that Greek fire was likely a blend of petroleum, pitch, sulfur, resin from pine or cedar trees, lime, and bitumen. The formula was a closely guarded state secret, known only to a select few within the Byzantine court, including the emperor. Despite numerous attempts by rival powers to replicate it, the exact ingredients and method of deployment were never duplicated, preserving the Byzantine naval dominance for centuries.
2. The Claw Of Archimedes
Get the latest articles delivered to your inbox
Sign up to our Free Weekly NewsletterOne of the most famous ancient innovations, the so-called Claw of Archimedes, came from the brilliant mind of mathematician, engineer, astronomer, and inventor Archimedes of Syracuse (ca. 287 BCE – ca. 212 BCE). This fearsome machine — a large mechanical arm equipped with a grappling hook (also known as an “iron hand”) — was mounted on the walls of Syracuse to defend against maritime invasions. The operators would lower the claw from the walls onto an enemy ship. Once ensnared, the ship would be lifted by the Claw and repeatedly dropped until it capsized.
According to Plutarch, these deadly machines played a significant role during the Second Punic War in 213 – 212 BCE. As the Romans besieged Syracuse, the defenders utilized massive catapults. In response, the Romans tethered their ships together and equipped them with towering ladders to scale the sea walls. This was the moment the Syracusans had anticipated, deploying the “Claw” to seize and overturn the invading vessels, throwing the Roman assault into disarray.
3. Archimedes’ Heat Ray
Another defensive mechanism employed by Syracuse’s defenders was Archimedes’ “Heat ray.” This device allegedly focused sunlight using an array of mirrors (polished shields or copper plates), creating intense heat to ignite Roman warships. However, it should be noted that none of the contemporary accounts of the Siege of Syracuse referenced such a weapon. Our primary source discussing this device is Anthemius of Tralles, who wrote centuries after the event. Roman ships did indeed burn during the siege, but only from incendiary projectiles thrown onto their decks.
MIT researchers conducted experiments to explore the practicality of the “Heat Ray,” managing to ignite a mock ship under specific conditions. These experiments yielded mixed results, suggesting that even if such a device existed, its effectiveness in actual combat would have been questionable.
4. The Steam Cannon
Another fascinating weapon attributed to Archimedes was a steam-powered device known as the Architonnerre, capable of rapidly firing projectiles. This “steam cannon” would operate by heating a large metal tube until sufficiently hot, then injecting a small amount of water behind a projectile within the tube. The water would rapidly convert to steam, propelling the projectile with great force. The existence of this innovative weapon, however, is highly debated.
Inspired by Archimedes, famed Renaissance inventor and polymath Leonardo da Vinci, sketched his own version of a steam cannon, the Architronito. There have also been modern attempts to explore the practicality of a “steam cannon”, with varying degrees of success. Due to intense heat, the mixture would have likely exploded as soon as it was fired, never reaching its intended target.
5. Hellenistic Mammoth Ships
The Hellenistic naval warfare can be described as “bigger is better.” The colossal vessels of the Hellenistic world, known as “polyremes,” were marvels of ancient naval engineering, with some, like the colossal tessarakonteres, purportedly measuring up to 420 feet (128 m) in length and carrying over 4,000 rowers. While these figures may be somewhat exaggerated, it is clear that these ships were significantly larger than the triremes of earlier times, which typically carried around 200 rowers. The shift from ramming tactics to siege weaponry, such as large catapults and ballistae, marked a significant evolution in naval combat strategies, and larger ships capable of carrying greater firepower became the norm.
The giant ships dominated the Mediterranean up to the end of the first century BCE. In fact, the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, saw the last recorded deployment of large warships. It also spelled the end of the Hellenistic era. Following Octavian’s triumph, the Roman navy became the sole master of the Mediterranean, and the large ships were relegated to the symbols of prestige and power, used by the wealthy and influential, such as emperor Caligula‘s large barges on the Nemi lake.
6. Chu-Ko-Nu: Ancient Chinese Crossbow
While the crossbow is commonly associated with European medieval warfare, the earliest evidence of crossbows originates from ancient China. Notably, the Chinese crossbow — the Chu-Ko-Nu — was a more advanced repeating crossbow, invented around the 4th century BCE. This innovative design was further improved by the famous military strategist Zhuge Liang (181 – 234 CE), whose version could fire up to three bolts simultaneously.
Although it was less accurate than single-shot crossbows and had a shorter range than longbows, the Chu-Ko-Nu boasted an impressive rate of fire for an ancient weapon. Trained soldiers could discharge up to ten steel bolts in just 15 seconds before needing to reload the magazine. No wonder the Cho-Ko-Nu remained in use at least until the late Qing dynasty, more than a thousand years after its inception.
7. Huo Long Chu Shui: Ancient Chinese Rocket
The Huo Long Chu Shui, or “Fire Dragon Emerging from Water,” is another case of an advanced weapon from pre-modern times. This early example of a multistage rocket was used effectively during the Ming dynasty. Its purpose was twofold, to instill fear and cause destruction among enemy ranks. The weapon consisted of a hollow bamboo tube, decorated with a carved dragon head, which housed several gunpowder-propelled rockets. The rockets would ignite in sequence, first propelling the device itself and then launching smaller projectiles at the enemy, creating a barrage of fire from above.
One could only imagine the faces of the men confronted with this terrifying weapon, a fire-breathing dragon sending a flaming hailstorm of terror on the helpless soldiers below. The Huo Long Chu Shui could launch its fiery arrows over fortifications, causing chaos and damage upon impact. Its design was so advanced for its time that it continued to inspire fear and awe in adversaries, solidifying its place in the annals of military history as a testament to the ingenuity of ancient Chinese warfare.
8. Chinese Land Mines
While the armies of medieval Europe were embroiled in the Crusades, the Chinese were taking a significant leap forward with the invention of a precursor to the modern land mines. Attributed to Lou Qianxia, these early mines were sophisticated and lethal weapons, utilizing various forms of gunpowder to blind, burn or poison. Initially, these devices were large bomb-like weapons that would be detonated en masse to kill and confuse the enemy, making him an easy target for an ambush. However, by the 13th century, the Chinese had developed more advanced land mines that could be triggered by the unsuspecting enemy’s footsteps.
The Chinese engineers continued to improve the lethal weapon, adding mechanical triggers akin to clockwork mechanisms. Concealed boards placed just beneath the earth surface would activate gears and weights when stepped on, striking flint to ignite the fuse. This innovation led to the creation of the “self-trespassing” mine, a direct ancestor of the modern land mine. Another deadly mine variant was the so-called “underground sky-soaring thunder,” a slow-burning flame in a bowl buried above a network of fuses, triggered by the disturbance of seemingly abandoned weapons or by unfortunate individuals who wanted to relieve themselves.
