William Theodore de Bary, sinologist and scholar of East Asian Philosophy at Columbia University, said that “if we were to characterize, in one word, the Chinese way of life for the last two thousand years, the word would be ‘Confucian.’”
The primary consideration of Confucianism is to create harmony: harmony between individuals, harmony between the population and their leadership, and harmony between humanity and the heavens. If all these factors can be held in balance, then peace and prosperity will be the conclusion.
Who Was Confucius?
Confucius was born in 551 BCE during the Spring and Autumn Period of the Zhou Dynasty. The Zhou was one of the most influential dynasties of Chinese antiquity but during this era, the central governing body was losing influence over the many feudal states that had once regarded the emperor as their commander in chief. In the ensuing chaos, many thinkers attempted to grasp what was going wrong and how it could be rectified. Confucius was one such thinker. As a teacher and expert on ritual, Confucius was already focused on the importance of learning and decorum. He reached the conclusion that disregard for ritual, tradition, and propriety from the top down was ultimately responsible, and he dedicated his remaining years to restoring them to a place of reverence.
Confucius did not believe that the population should be kept in check through fear and intimidation. If the government has to resort to such measures, they have already lost the mandate of the people and by extension the “Mandate of Heaven.” Leadership depended on mutual respect and the cultivation of the mind. A virtuous and prosperous population will be respectful and obedient.
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Although Confucianism was to suffer persecution and suppression during the Warring States Period that formed the final years of the Zhou Dynasty from 475-221 BCE, it was to rise to prominence again during the Han Dynasty (202 BCE-9 CE and 25-220 CE), alongside Buddhism and Daoism. Adapting to new influences and new circumstances it became recognized as the core of the state orthodoxy and a central tenant of the Chinese way of life.
1. The Way of Heaven
At the heart of Confucianism is a belief that Heaven and man are one. Mankind has a dualistic nature, a side that is animalistic and a side that is moral and capable of greatness. The moral side of humanity, which Confucius believed was our true nature, is gifted to us from the heavens. Huangtian Shangdi, the Lord on High, is the supreme ruler of all affairs. For a mortal ruler to maintain his grasp upon power, he needs to be able to retain the Mandate of Heaven, if he should lose that mandate, then all is lost.
In order to pay proper respect to the heavens, it is necessary to work to cultivate the moral and respectful side of our nature. To achieve that we need to work on ourselves, on maintaining good relationships, educating ourselves, respecting our ancestors, and performing the proper rituals to maintain good communication between Man and Heaven.
2. Leadership
Confucius believed that a good ruler could be recognized through the favor of his people. A good ruler would enjoy a peaceful reign, blessed by the Mandate of Heaven and the mandate of the people, which were interconnected. A bad ruler would face constant challenges to his leadership; an unhappy population rebelling against oppression was an indication that the Mandate of Heaven and the blessings of the population had been lost.
As mentioned before, Confucius did not believe that the pathway to successful leadership was one of ruling with an iron fist but with benevolence. Despite the deep focus on morality and education within Confucianism, there is also a deep practical awareness that poverty leads to discontent, and discontent, inevitably, leads to conflict. Therefore, it was the emperor’s task to ensure that his people were well cared for and that they were prosperous and content. Economic considerations were in many ways considered one of the foremost responsibilities of good leadership. Once the animal in us is appeased, it is much easier for us to access the sage in training.
3. Self-Cultivation
Confucius believed that it was necessary for us all to educate ourselves and to contemplate the natural world and our own inner landscape. Our goal is to evolve from being ignorant, uncultured barbarians to becoming educated and cultivated. The best of us may aspire to become a sage, one whose wisdom is so great that he is considered to have become immortal. In this way, education alone can be perceived as a path to transcendence.
In many ways, it can be argued that all of Confucius’s teaching ultimately arose from his study of the ancient texts which, as a teacher, he held in reverence. German-Swiss Psychiatrist and Philosopher Karl Jaspers argued that “In the philosophy of Confucius, the new expressed itself in the form of the old.”
As Confucianism rose to prominence, for a young man to be able to be honored enough to take on a role within the state bureaucracy, he must first prove his knowledge of the Confucian classics and virtues. There were six classic texts that Confucius held in particularly high regard: The Book of Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Music, The Book of Changes, and the Spring and Autumn Annals.
4. Family and Filial Piety
Confucian views of relationships focus greatly on structure and expectation. Although there is a theoretical appreciation that for harmony to be maintained, change is necessary and to be expected, practical notions work to protect the status quo.
Family is regarded as the bedrock of all of human society. In order for humanity to function well, our home roots must first be stable and every family member is responsible for behaving according to their duty. The relationships that he focused the most keenly on were that of parent and child, husband and wife, and older brothers to younger brothers. In each instance reverence was to be placed on age and experience with the younger in the relationship always being expected to show proper respect to their elders, however, this was not with the expectation that these relationships reflect any kind of brutality or force.
Parents are expected to behave with patience and affection and to take responsibility for their children’s education. In turn, it is the responsibility of the child to bring honor to their parents through their achievements. Younger brothers should in turn pay deference to their older brothers and wives pay deference to their husbands. There is little focus on the role of women within Confucianism which is a reflection of the time in which the philosophy evolved. Women were expected to be modest, meek, and submissive in all their relationships apart from that with their children. Their role did not extend far beyond the home.
5. Ancestor Worship
It was considered to be the duty and honor of all individuals to revere and pay homage to their ancestors. With an emphasis on familial responsibility and respect for our elders, it would make sense that this reverence be extended to deceased members of the family on whom our current circumstances may have depended.
More than that, the dead were thought to remain with us in the spirit realm or as part of the heavenly pantheon. Many gods in the pantheon were once mortal and obtained their place in the pantheon after death. In honoring our ancestors, we are in turn honoring the heavens, and in this way can hope to retain heavenly support in our earthly endeavors.
It was often believed that the most effective way for a ruler to communicate with Huangdi and win his favor was through the mediation of his ancestors who would reside at Huangdi’s side. In many ways, to retain the support and benevolence of one’s ancestors and to bring honor upon them through our good works was to maintain the support and the benevolence of the heavens. In this way, families could continue to support one another, long after death.
6. Ritual
Confucius was an expert in history, music, dance, and ritual and it was with these skills and this knowledge that he made his living. He was truly passionate about the importance of ritual for the development of a calm and stable society. Confucianism shone a light on the ritual practices of the Zhou and brought about their transformation into an official doctrine for state and private worship throughout the course of the Han.
Confucius did not have a shallow or mechanical view of ritual. It was not enough for him that the motions be performed correctly: a hollow performance of piety. Neither did he believe that the only purpose of ritual was to appease the gods or to honor one’s ancestors. To Confucius, ritual was where the work to reform desire and build a moral character began.
Confucius believed that rituals had to be performed with the proper mindset. One must be fully immersed in the action of ritual and go through each step with full reverence for each action and for every purpose. He believed that if this alone could be achieved then it would be the foundation upon which all other self-cultivation could be built.
The profound influence that Confucianism has had, not just upon Chinese religious history but throughout South East Asia and the world, cannot be denied. While Confucius maintained certain passions and focuses, he left no stone unturned in his pursuit of a system of living that could bring about peace and prosperity. His greatest wish was for Heaven, man, and nature to be able to exist in harmony and, in order to achieve that, man needed to work to understand his place within his family, within society, and within the cosmos and to tirelessly fulfill his responsibilities and expand his mind. In many senses, Confucianism places power back into the hands of men to find order within the chaos and to find peace, art, and spirituality within the act of living.
