Who Is Satan in the Hebrew Bible?

Popular imagination associates the biblical “Satan” with the diabolical being also called “the Devil” in the New Testament. The creature is thoroughly evil—a tempter and destroyer of all that is good and divine. This view of Satan, however, is absent from the Hebrew Bible (the part of the Bible that Christians call the “Old Testament”). Instead, Satan—or, more properly, “a” or “the Satan”—is presented as a character who works at God’s bidding as part of God’s heavenly council. 

“Satan” is not a proper name in the Hebrew Bible. Instead, it is a descriptor derived from the Hebrew root meaning “adversary” or “opponent.” While it does not come out in English translations, the word is used often both in its noun and verb forms in the Hebrew Bible to refer to both human and superhuman or angelic actors. The word does not assume anything about the innate goodness or evil character of its referent. An “adversary” (Satan) could be right or wrong, depending on one’s perspective. 

For example, in the biblical book of First Samuel the Philistines express worry that David will turn against them and become their “Satan” if they allow him to accompany them in battle against his fellow Hebrews. In a strange story in the biblical book of Numbers, God sends an angel to dissuade a prophet named Balaam from cursing the Israelites. The story describes the angel as a “Satan” enlisted in God’s service. 

Was Satan a Member of God’s Heavenly Council?

The biblical book of Job features a particular character who is called simply “The Satan.” This is the most developed instance in the Hebrew Bible of an otherworldly being who seems to bear this as a permanent title. In the story, The Satan is a member of what is often referred to by interpreters as God’s “council,” which the text calls in this case “the sons of God.” 

In the opening chapter, God asks The Satan for his assessment of Job’s piety. The Satan claims that it is suspect. Since Job enjoys great wealth and comfort, he argues, Job’s devotion to God would fade if he were made poor and miserable. God then sends The Satan to test Job. From Job’s own point of view, his afflictions come from God’s hand. He does not venture to blame anyone else in the rest of the book.

Scholars have struggled to find an appropriate analogy to explain Satan’s role in God’s council. The best attempts include the role of a prosecutor, the police, or an executioner. Though these may be inadequate analogies, it is at least clear that Satan is not God’s archenemy in the Hebrew Bible.

The Satan is mentioned briefly in the Bible in First Chronicles chapter 21 where he incites King David to take a census of the Israelite population. However, in the parallel to this story in Second Samuel, which the writer of Chronicles used as a source, God is the one who incites David to this action. These passages raise various questions. However, if The Satan is understood as God’s servant, at least one of them is answered. 

Elsewhere, God also causes human “satans,” who are foreign powers, to arise in opposition to King Solomon of Israel. While God does not approve of their every activity, these “satans” act at God’s behest.  

Can God Favor Mercy Over Satan’s Intentions?

The Satan appears in an apocalyptic vision in the third chapter of the biblical book of Zechariah. In this case, God and God’s special messenger, called the “Angel of the Lord,” rebuke The Satan for standing ready to accuse Israel’s high priest Joshua. 

While God is not pleased with The Satan’s intent in this passage, the interaction does not rise to the level of a cosmic “good-versus-evil” conflict. Rather, it is presented as God’s desiring to show mercy, which entails rejecting The Satan’s stringent, judgmental posture toward Joshua’s symbolically disheveled state as the representative of the Israelite nation. Having silenced The Satan, God’s messenger angel commands that Joshua’s filthy garments be removed and replaced with ritually pure vestments worthy of a Temple priest. 

Genesis, the first book in the Hebrew Bible, tells the story of a snake that persuaded the first man and woman to eat fruit from a tree that God had forbidden them to eat. Famously, this snake became associated with Satan, either as a host or directly. However, the Hebrew Bible nowhere associates this creature with a spiritual entity. It is simply a crafty, talking snake. 

The New Testament likewise never explicitly makes the connection between the talking snake in Genesis and The Satan. However, the New Testament book of Revelation refers to The Satan as a deceiver and uses reptilian imagery to portray him. Elsewhere, the snake from Genesis is described as a deceiver. Over time, these strands were woven together and addended to a storyline about Satan’s background that has enjoyed impressive staying power in Christianity and beyond.  

Does Satan Have a Backstory in the Hebrew Bible? 

While two passages from the Hebrew Bible—Ezekiel 28 and Isaiah 14—are often cited as telling the story of Satan’s origin as an angel and his subsequent fall from heaven, both of these passages are actually decrying the arrogance and predicting the demise of human kings contemporary to the authors. While the authors use poetic, imaginative, apocalyptic language, the context does not suggest that The Satan’s backstory is in view. In fact, the kings are specifically identified in each case. Later, these texts were pieced together with passages from the New Testament and extra-biblical material to develop an elaborate origin tale for Satan that evolved in tandem with his personality as God’s supremely evil nemesis.